El Árbol/01 Classes
El Árbol

01 Classes

the categories of word

volume 01 of 9indexed by kind17 sections26 cross-references01-CLASSES.md

2 catalogued defects in this volume. Each is shown against the passage it is about rather than corrected in place — the markdown stays the source of truth.

Kind: CLASS. What sort of word is this? Ten classes, four open and six closed. Every closed class is enumerated in full.

Every technical term is defined inline at first use. Recap at the end.

1The class tree§

  • WORD
    • is a subtype of its parentOPEN CLASSES — new members added constantly; cannot be listed
      • is a subtype of its parentNOUN(sustantivo names an ENTITY)
      • is a subtype of its parentVERB(verbo names an ACTION/STATE)
      • is a subtype of its parentADJECTIVE(adjetivo QUALITY of an entity)
      • is a subtype of its parentADVERB(adverbio QUALITY of an action/quality)
    • is a subtype of its parentCLOSED CLASSES — fixed inventory; listed exhaustively below
      • is a subtype of its parentDETERMINER(determinante REFERENCE, scope ◄)§4
      • is a subtype of its parentPRONOUN(pronombre REFERENCE, pointing ◄)§5
      • is a subtype of its parentPREPOSITION(preposición RELATION, space/time ◄)§6
      • is a subtype of its parentCONJUNCTION(conjunción RELATION, logic ◄)§7
      • is a subtype of its parentAUXILIARY(verbo auxiliar grammar-carrier ◄)§8
      • is a subtype of its parentINTERJECTION(interjección expressive ◄)§9

2Membership tests frequency 3 of 3, daily§

How do you actually know what class a word belongs to? Not by meaning — by distribution (what a word can combine with, and where it can sit in a sentence; the company it keeps rather than what it means).

ClassTestPassesFails
NOUNCan it take a determiner? Does it have inherent gender?el *vino, la *casael rápidamente (ungrammatical)
VERBCan it conjugate for person and tense?habl*o / hablaste***casé (ungrammatical) (from casa)
ADJECTIVECan it follow a noun and agree with it? Can it take muy?vino *tinto, muy *carovino rápidamente (ungrammatical)
ADVERBCan it modify a verb without changing form?habla *rápido***habla rápida (ungrammatical)
DETERMINERCan it precede a noun and set its scope?el* vino, este* vinocaro vino (ungrammatical)
PRONOUNCan it replace a whole noun phrase by itself?*Lo vi*
PREPOSITIONDoes it require an object and stay invariable?*con vos*
CONJUNCTIONDoes it join two units?A *y* B

2.1The two terms in those tests§

Invariable (the word never changes shape — no endings are added for gender, number, person, or tense; it looks the same everywhere).

Compare:

  • rápid*o / rápida / rápidos / rápidas* — an adjective, variable**: four shapes
  • rápido modifying a verb — invariable: one shape, even about a woman. Ella habla rápido, never rápida (ungrammatical)
  • con, de, para — invariable: prepositions have exactly one form each, forever

Scope (how much of the possible field of reference you're pointing at, and how sharply — whether you mean this particular one, any one, all of them, or the general idea).

Watch scope change while the noun stays put:

Scope it sets
vino (bare)wine as a substance or a kind — no boundary at all
*el vino*the specific one we both have in mind
*un vino*one instance, new to you
*este vino*the one physically near me
*mi vino*the one belonging to me
*todo el vino*the entire quantity, exhaustively
*algún vino*some one or other, unspecified which

3The open classes§

3.1NOUN · sustantivo§

Full taxonomy in vol 02 §1. Class-level facts:

  • ◆ has-a gender — inherent (belonging to the word itself, listed in the dictionary, not copied from anywhere) — and number, which is inflected (chosen by you and marked with an ending)
  • Cannot be marked for case, person, or tense
  • Head of the noun phrase — head (the central word that the phrase is fundamentally about; everything else in the phrase hangs off it)

3.2VERB · verbo§

Full taxonomy in vol 03. Class-level facts:

  • ◆ has-a person, number, tense, aspect, mood, voice
  • The only class carrying tense/aspect/mood
  • ⇒ becomes noun (infinitive), adjective (participle), adverb (gerundio) — the three costumes
  • Head of the clause

Subclasses by argument structure — argument (a participant the verb requires in order to make sense: comer needs an eater and something eaten):

  • VERB
    • is a subtype of its parentby TRANSITIVITY [transitivity = whether the verb takes a(direct object — a thing the action lands on])
      • is a subtype of its parentTransitive(takes a direct object comer algo)
      • is a subtype of its parentIntransitive(takes none llegar)
      • is a subtype of its parentDitransitive(takes two objects dar algo a alguien)
      • is a subtype of its parentPrepositional(requires a preposition depender de)
    • is a subtype of its parentby PREDICATION TYPE [predication = the act of saying something(about the subject])
      • is a subtype of its parentPredicative(carries full meaning comer, correr)
      • is a subtype of its parentCopular(just links subject to a description; contributes little meaning of its own ............ ser, estar, parecer)
      • is a subtype of its parentSemi-copular(links, but adds a change quedar, ponerse, volverse)
    • is a subtype of its parentby SPECIAL BEHAVIOUR
      • is a subtype of its parentPronominal(permanently comes with "se" quejarse, irse)
      • is a subtype of its parentImpersonal(can have no subject at all haber(hay), llover)
      • is a subtype of its parentDefective(incomplete set of forms soler, abolir)
      • is a subtype of its parentInverted(the thing liked is the subject, not the liker ........ gustar, doler, faltar)

3.3ADJECTIVE · adjetivo§

  • ◆ has-a gender and number — both agreed (copied from the noun rather than belonging to the adjective itself) — plus degree (how much of the quality: big / bigger / biggest / extremely big)
  • ADJECTIVE
    • is a subtype of its parentby AGREEMENT PATTERN
      • is a subtype of its parentFour-form-o(alto/alta/altos/altas)
      • is a subtype of its parentTwo-form (-e, consonant) grande/grandes · fácil/fáciles
      • is a subtype of its parentInvariablerosanaranjamacho
    • is a subtype of its parentby POSITION BEHAVIOUR
      • is a subtype of its parentPostposed only(nationality, colour, technical)
      • is a subtype of its parentPreposed only(a few evaluatives (mero, presunto))
      • is a subtype of its parentEither — meaning shifts(viejo, grande, pobre, nuevo… (14 of them))
    • is a subtype of its parentby TYPE
      • is a subtype of its parentQualifying(describes a property caro, lindo)
      • is a subtype of its parentRelational(assigns to a category económico, solar)
      • is a subtype of its parentDeterminative(quantifies see DETERMINER ( ))§4

3.4ADVERB · adverbio§

  • ◆ has-a degree only. Never agrees. That invariability is the class definition (§2.1).
  • ADVERB
    • is a subtype of its parentby FORMATION
      • is a subtype of its parentDerived-mente(rápidamente, claramente)
      • is a subtype of its parentAdjectivalbare adj(habla rápido, trabaja duro ◄ preferred in speech)
      • is a subtype of its parentSimpleunderived(bien, mal, acá, ya, muy)
      • is a subtype of its parentLocutions(de repente, a menudo, en serio locution = a fixed multi-word phrase that behaves as a single word])
    • is a subtype of its parentby MEANING
      • is a subtype of its parentPlace(acá, allá, ahí, cerca, lejos, arriba, adentro)
      • is a subtype of its parentTime(ahora, antes, después, recién, ya, todavía, siempre)
      • is a subtype of its parentManner(bien, mal, así, despacio, apenas)
      • is a subtype of its parentQuantity(muy, mucho, poco, bastante, demasiado, casi, nada)
      • is a subtype of its parentAffirmation(sí, claro, obvio, seguro)
      • is a subtype of its parentNegation(no, nunca, jamás, tampoco)
      • is a subtype of its parentDoubt(quizá, tal vez, capaz, por ahí)
      • is a subtype of its parentDiscourse(igual, aparte, encima, total ◄ see)§9

4DETERMINER · determinante — exhaustive§

known defectdiagram defect — DETERMINER · determinante (exhaustive) Actually: The 'POSSESSIVE, short — 8 forms' count does not match its own list: mi(s) · tu(s) · su(s) · nuestro/a(s) enumerates 10 forms (mi, mis, tu, tus, su, sus, nuestro, nuestra, nuestros, nuestras), and the sibling counts on the same tree are exact (ARTICLE 9 and DEMONSTRATIVE 12 both check out).. (not re-checked against the source file)

Every determiner in Spanish. Their shared job is setting scope (§2.1).

  • DETERMINERdeterminante
    • is a subtype of its parentARTICLEartículo(9 forms, total)
      • is a subtype of its parentDefinite(definite = we both already know which one)ellaloslas
      • is a subtype of its parentIndefinite(indefinite = one of these, new to you)ununaunosunas
      • is a subtype of its parentNeuter(lo neuter = neither masculine nor feminine; refers to an idea or quality rather than to any noun: "lo bueno"])
    • is a subtype of its parentDEMONSTRATIVEdemostrativo(12 forms demonstrative = points by distance from the speaker)
      • is a subtype of its parentProximalesteestaestosestas [near me]
      • is a subtype of its parentMedialeseesaesosesas [near you]
      • is a subtype of its parentDistalaquelaquellaaquellosaquellas [far from both]
    • is a subtype of its parentPOSSESSIVE, short(8 forms)
      • is a subtype of its parentmi(s) · tu(s) · su(s) · nuestro/as(no vuestro in Argentina)
    • is a subtype of its parentQUANTIFIER (cuantificador) ─ specifies amount
      • is a subtype of its parentUniversaltodo/a/os/ascadaambos/as
      • is a subtype of its parentExistential(algún/alguna/algunos/algunas)
      • is a subtype of its parentNegative(ningún/ninguna)
      • is a subtype of its parentGradablemuchopocobastantedemasiadotantomásmenos
      • is a subtype of its parentFree choice(cualquier(a))
      • is a subtype of its parentOthervarios/asotro/acierto/atalsemejantemedio
    • is a subtype of its parentNUMERALnumeral
      • is a subtype of its parentCardinal(uno, dos, tres… cien, mil)
      • is a subtype of its parentOrdinal(primer(o), segundo, tercer(o)…)
      • is a subtype of its parentMultiplicative(doble, triple)
      • is a subtype of its parentFractional(medio, tercio)

5PRONOUN · pronombre — exhaustive§

Pronoun (a word that points at something instead of naming it, standing in for a whole noun phrase).

  • PRONOUNpronombre
    • is a subtype of its parentPERSONALpersonal
      • is a subtype of its parentSubject("stressed" = can stand alone, carry emphasis)yovosélellaustednosotros/asustedesellos/ellas
      • is a subtype of its parentClitic("unstressed" = cannot stand alone, must lean on a verb clitic = a small pronoun that attaches to a verb and has no stress of its own: te llamo, llamame])
        • is a subtype of its parentAccusative(accusative = the direct-object form: what the action lands on)metelolanosloslas
        • is a subtype of its parentDative(dative = the indirect-object form: to or for whom)metelenosles
        • is a subtype of its parentReflexive(reflexive = the action comes back to the doer)metesenosse
      • is a subtype of its parentPrepositional ─ the shape used after a prepositionmívosélellaustedsínosotros/asustedesellos/as
        • the parent carries this as a propertyfused forms: conmigo · consigo(NO contigo in Argentina → con vos)
    • is a subtype of its parentDEMONSTRATIVEeste/ese/aquel (+fem/pl)estoesoaquello
    • is a subtype of its parentPOSSESSIVE, longmíotuyosuyonuestro (+fem/pl)
    • is a subtype of its parentRELATIVE(links a describing clause back to a noun)quequien(es)el/la/los/las queel/la cual· cuyo/a/os/asdondecuandocomo
    • is a subtype of its parentINTERROGATIVE / EXCLAMATIVE ─ all carry a written accentquéquién(es)cuál(es)cuánto/a/os/as· dóndecuándocómopor qué
    • is a subtype of its parentINDEFINITE(points without identifying)
      • is a subtype of its parentPersonalalguiennadie
      • is a subtype of its parentNon-personalalgonada
      • is a subtype of its parentSelectivealguno/aninguno/aotro/acualquiera
      • is a subtype of its parentQuantifyingtodomuchopocobastantedemasiadovarios
    • is a subtype of its parentNEUTERloestoesoaquellotodoalgonada
+ noun ⇒ DETERMINERalone ⇒ PRONOUN
demonstrativeeste libroeste
possessivemi libroel mío
interrogative¿qué libro?¿qué?
indefinitealgún libroalguno
quantifiermucha platamucho

6PREPOSITION · preposición — exhaustive§

Preposition (an invariable word placed before a noun phrase to relate it to the rest of the sentence — in space, time, or logic).

The complete list. Twenty-three items, and that's all of them.

  • PREPOSITIONpreposición
    • is a subtype of its parentCOREhigh frequencyacondeenparaporsinsobre
    • is a subtype of its parentSPATIAL / TEMPORALantebajocontradesdeentrehaciahastatras
    • is a subtype of its parentOTHERdurantemediantesegúnversusvía
    • is a subtype of its parentARCHAICrecognize onlycabe (= junto a)so (= bajo; survives in "so pena de")

Prepositional locutions (fixed multi-word phrases behaving as prepositions): antes de · después de · a través de · alrededor de · cerca de · lejos de · dentro de · fuera de · encima de · debajo de · delante de · detrás de · junto a · frente a · en vez de · a pesar de · gracias a · respecto a · acerca de · además de

7CONJUNCTION · conjunción — exhaustive§

Conjunction (a word that joins two units — two words, two phrases, or two clauses).

  • CONJUNCTIONconjunción
    • is a subtype of its parentCOORDINATING(joins two units of EQUAL rank)
      • is a subtype of its parentCopulativey (→ e before i-/hi-)ni [adds]
      • is a subtype of its parentDisjunctive(o (→ u before o-/ho-) [offers a choice])
      • is a subtype of its parentAdversativeperosinomasaunque [contrasts]
      • is a subtype of its parentDistributive frequency 1 of 3, rareya…yasea…sea rare
    • is a subtype of its parentSUBORDINATING(attaches a lesser clause to a main one)
      • is a subtype of its parentCompletivequesi (indirect question)
      • is a subtype of its parentCausalporquecomoya quepuesto quedado que
      • is a subtype of its parentFinal(final = expressing purpose)para quea fin de queno sea que → SUBJ
      • is a subtype of its parentConsecutive(consecutive = expressing result)así quede modo quede manera que
      • is a subtype of its parentTemporal(· antes de que → SUBJ always)cuandomientrashasta queen cuanto· apenasuna vez quedespués de que
      • is a subtype of its parentConditionalsia menos quecon tal de que· en caso de quesiempre que → SUBJ (except si)
      • is a subtype of its parentConcessive(concessive = "even though / even if")aunquea pesar de quepor más que
      • is a subtype of its parentComparativecomosegúntal comomás/menos que

8AUXILIARY · auxiliar — exhaustive§

Auxiliary (a verb that has lost its own meaning and now exists to carry grammar for another verb).

  • AUXILIARY
    • is a subtype of its parentTRUE AUXILIARYmeaning completely gone
      • is a subtype of its parenthaber(builds compound tenses he hablado)
      • is a subtype of its parentser(builds the passive fue construido)
      • is a subtype of its parentestar(builds the progressive estoy hablando)
    • is a subtype of its parentSEMI-AUXILIARYheads a periphrasis —(periphrasis = a multi-word structure doing the job a single verb form does in other languages: "voy a hablar" = future])vol 07 §4
      • is a subtype of its parentTemporalir aacabar deestar por
      • is a subtype of its parentModal(modal = expressing possibility, obligation, or ability)poderdebertener quehaber quesolerquerer
      • is a subtype of its parentAspectual(aspectual = shaping how the action unfolds in time)empezar aponerse adejar devolver a· terminar deseguirllevarandarvenir
      • is a subtype of its parentResultativetenerllevardejarquedar (+ participle)

9INTERJECTION · interjección — and the discourse-marker problem§

Interjection (a standalone expressive word that isn't grammatically connected to the sentence around it).

  • INTERJECTION
    • is a subtype of its parentPROPERonly ever interjectionsayuyehufbahcheojodaleguauupa
    • is a subtype of its parentIMPROPERborrowed from other classes¡bueno!¡mirá!¡vamos!¡claro!¡posta!¡nada!
    • is a subtype of its parentFORMULAICholachaugraciasperdónpermisosalud

The honest answer: they're discourse markers, and "discourse marker" is a FUNCTION, not a CLASS. (Discourse marker = a word managing the conversation itself — signalling a turn, a shift, a hedge — rather than contributing to the sentence's content.) Igual is an adverb by form and a pivot by function. Trying to assign them a class is the wrong question — vol 04 §5 handles them where they belong.

10Class-shifting frequency 2 of 3, secondary§

Words belonging to several classes, distinguished only by behaviour:

WordAs…Example
queconjunctionCreo *que* sí
relative pronounel tipo *que* vino
loneuter article*lo bueno*
accusative clitic*Lo vi*
muchodeterminer*mucha plata*
pronouncomí *mucho***
adverbtrabaja *mucho***
comoconjunction*Como llovía, no fui*
prepositiontrabaja *como* consultor
verbyo *como* milanesas
bajopreposition*bajo presión*
adjectiveun tipo *bajo***
verbyo *bajo* la escalera
rápidoadjectiveun auto *rápido***
adverbhabla *rápido***
hablaverbella *habla* rápido
noun (feminine)el *habla* rioplatense
poderverbno *puedo***
nounel *poder***

Terms defined in this volume§

Terms defined in this volume38

  • distribution
  • invariable
  • scope
  • referent
  • inherent
  • inflected
  • agreed
  • head
  • argument
  • transitivity
  • predication
  • copular
  • pronominal
  • defective
  • degree
  • locution
  • relational
  • qualifying
  • definite
  • indefinite
  • neuter
  • demonstrative
  • quantifier
  • accusative
  • dative
  • reflexive
  • clitic
  • relative pronoun
  • preposition
  • government
  • conjunction
  • selection
  • auxiliary
  • periphrasis
  • modal
  • aspectual
  • interjection
  • discourse marker

Cross-references§

  • Noun taxonomy in full02 §1
  • Verb forms in full**03**
  • The functions these classes fill**04**
  • Which features each class carries05 §3
  • Discourse markers by function04 §5
Next02-FORMS-NOMINAL.md — the noun tree and its neighbours.