El Árbol/02 Forms
El Árbol

02 Forms

the nominal system

volume 02 of 9indexed by kind9 sections13 cross-references02-FORMS-NOMINAL.md

Kind: FORM. Every shape a noun, adjective, determiner or pronoun can take. Opens with the noun tree.

Nominal = to do with nouns and the words that cluster around them (adjectives, determiners, pronouns) — as opposed to verbal*, the verb system.*

Every technical term is defined inline at first use. Recap at the end.

1THE NOUN TREE frequency 3 of 3, daily§

A noun is classified on six independent axes at once — independent meaning knowing its value on one axis tells you nothing about the others. La gente is common, collective, feminine, and simple all at the same time. Six coordinates, one word.

  • NOUNsustantivo
    • is a subtype of its parent① BY REFERENCE(reference = what kind of thing in the world it points to)
      • is a subtype of its parentProperpropio(proper = names one specific individual)MaríaBuenos Airesel Paraná
        • the parent carries this as a propertyno article normally, but: la Argentina, el Chaco
      • is a subtype of its parentCommoncomún(names a type, not an individual)
        • is a subtype of its parentConcrete(physically perceivable)mesavinoperro
        • is a subtype of its parentAbstract(an idea, not touchable)libertadamorfiaca
    • is a subtype of its parent② BY COUNTABILITY(countability = whether you can put a number in front of it)
      • is a subtype of its parentCountcontable(un vaso / dos vasos)
      • is a subtype of its parentMassno contable(mass = an undifferentiated substance; *two waters is odd)aguaplatapancarne
        • the parent carries this as a propertypluralize ⇒ "types of": los vinos, las aguas
        • the parent carries this as a propertyto count it you need a unitizer: un vaso DE agua(unitizer = a word that carves a portion out of a mass)
      • is a subtype of its parentCollectivecolectivo(one word naming a group SINGULAR verb always: la gente ES (never *son))la gentela familiael equipola banda
    • is a subtype of its parent③ BY GENDER(every noun has exactly one value gender = an arbitrary class-tag every Spanish noun carries, which everything describing it must then copy. Mostly unrelated to sex: "la mesa" is not female])
      • is a subtype of its parentMasculinemasculino
        • is a subtype of its parentby ending-o-aje-or-án-ambre-ete
        • is a subtype of its parentGreek -maproblemasistematemaidiomaclimaprogramadramapoemamapaplaneta
        • is a subtype of its parentby categorydaysmonthsriversseasmountainsnumberscolourslanguagesinfinitives
        • is a subtype of its parentlexical(⊘ = genuinely arbitrary; must be memorized)el díael sofáel cura (priest)
      • is a subtype of its parentFemininefemenino
        • is a subtype of its parentby ending-a-ción/-sión-dad/-tad-tud-umbre-ie-itis-eza-ura-icia
        • is a subtype of its parentby categorylettersislandshours
        • is a subtype of its parentlexicalla manola fotola motola radio
      • is a subtype of its parentCommon gendercomún(ONE form; the article decides)el/la periodistael/la artistael/la estudianteel/la gerenteel/la testigoel/la joven
      • is a subtype of its parentEpiceneepiceno(ONE fixed gender, either sex the word's gender doesn't track the creature's sex at all)la víctimala personael personajeel bebéla jirafa
      • is a subtype of its parentAmbiguousambiguo(BOTH genders, same meaning)el/la marel/la azúcarel/la sartén
      • is a subtype of its parentMeaning-differentiating(gender IS the distinction)el papa/la papa ★★★el orden/la ordenel cura/la curael radio/la radioel coma/la comael frente/la frenteel corte/la corteel bolso/la bolsael puerto/la puerta
      • is a subtype of its parentPHONOLOGICAL SUBCLASS(feminine, but takes "el" phonological = driven purely by sound, not meaning Feminine nouns starting with a STRESSED a-/ha- take "el" only to avoid the ugly "la a-" collision:)el aguael almael hambreel áreael armael hachael águilael aulael ave
        • the parent carries this as a propertyplural reverts: LAS aguas
        • the parent carries this as a propertyadjectives stay fem: el agua FRÍA
        • the parent carries this as a propertyunstressed a- doesn't qualify: la avenida, la amiga
        • the parent carries this as a propertysame rule makes "el habla rioplatense" feminine
    • is a subtype of its parent④ BY NUMBER BEHAVIOUR
      • is a subtype of its parentRegularcasa/casaspapel/papeles
        • the parent carries this as a propertyvowel +s · consonant +es · -z → -ces
        • the parent carries this as a propertySTRESS never moves, so the written accent may appear(or vanish to keep marking the same syllable: canción → canciones (accent drops) examen → exámenes (accent appears) joven → jóvenes régimen → regímenes (stress actually shifts))
      • is a subtype of its parentInvariable(identical singular and plural)el lunes/los lunesla crisis/las crisisel paraguas
      • is a subtype of its parentPluralia tantum(plural-only, no singular exists)las gafaslas tijeraslas vacacioneslos celos
      • is a subtype of its parentSingularia tantum(singular-only)la sedel norteel caos
    • is a subtype of its parent⑤ BY FORMATION(formation = how the word was built)
      • is a subtype of its parentSimpleprimitivo(not built from anything)casapan
      • is a subtype of its parentDerivedderivado(built by adding an affix affix = a prefix or suffix glued to a base word)
        • is a subtype of its parentDeverbal(from a VERB)producir→producciónconocer→conocimientollegar→llegada
        • is a subtype of its parentDeadjectival(from an ADJECTIVE)pobre→pobrezaalto→alturatriste→tristeza
        • is a subtype of its parentDenominal(from another NOUN)pan→panaderíacarne→carnicero
      • is a subtype of its parentCompoundcompuesto(two whole words fused)paraguasabrelatassacacorchostelaraña
      • is a subtype of its parentEvaluativeapreciativo(an ending adding attitude, not meaning)
        • is a subtype of its parentDiminutivecasitacafecitomomentito
        • is a subtype of its parentAugmentativecasonagolazoportazo
      • is a subtype of its parentClipping(a word cut short)la fotola motoel coleel finde
      • is a subtype of its parentLoanel wifiel mailel shopping (RP)
    • is a subtype of its parent⑥ BY ORIGIN CLASS(converted from a different word class ─ conversion = a word changing class with no ending added)
      • is a subtype of its parentfrom INFINITIVE ⇒ el poder · el deber · el amanecer · el ser
      • is a subtype of its parentfrom ADJECTIVE ⇒ los pobres · un viejo · lo bueno
      • is a subtype of its parentfrom PARTICIPLE ⇒ el herido · un conocido · lo hecho
      • is a subtype of its parentfrom any phrase ⇒ el qué dirán · un no sé qué

1.1Why six axes and not one hierarchy§

Worked example — las papas fritas:

AxisValue
① referencecommon, concrete
② countabilitycount here; mass as generic papa
③ genderfeminine — and meaning-differentiating (el papa = Pope)
④ numberregular plural
⑤ formationsimple + fritas (irregular participle as adjective)
⑥ originnative noun

1.2The gender decision procedure frequency 3 of 3, daily§

In priority order:

  1. 1Person/animal with obvious sex?biological gender wins
  2. 2In the ~25-item arbitrary list?memorized (la mano, el día…)
  3. 3Greek -ma/-pa/-ta and abstract?masculine
  4. 4Diagnostic suffix?-ción/-dad/-tud/-umbre = F -aje/-or/-án = M
  5. 5Ends in -o or -a?M / F (99% reliable)
  6. 6Anything else?⊘ look it up

2Adjective forms§

  • ADJECTIVE FORMS
    • is a subtype of its parentAGREEMENT PARADIGM(paradigm = the complete set of shapes one word can take)
      • is a subtype of its parentFour-form-oaltoaltaaltosaltas
      • is a subtype of its parentTwo-formgrande/grandesfácil/fáciles
      • is a subtype of its parentNationality +a(español/española/españoles/españolas)
      • is a subtype of its parentInvariable(invariable = one shape only, never changes)rosanaranjalilamacho
    • is a subtype of its parentAPOCOPATED FORMS ─ shortened before a noun(apocope = chopping the end off a word for phonetic ease)
      • is a subtype of its parentbefore m.sg. nounsbuenmalprimerterceralgúnningún
      • is a subtype of its parentbefore ANY sg. noungrancualquier
      • is a subtype of its parentbefore male names(san (but Santo Domingo))
    • is a subtype of its parentDEGREE FORMS ─ how much of the quality
      • is a subtype of its parentPositive(caro)
      • is a subtype of its parentComparative(comparing two things)
        • is a subtype of its parentanalytic(built from separate words)más caromenos carotan caro
        • is a subtype of its parentsynthetic(built into a single irregular word)mejorpeormayormenor
      • is a subtype of its parentRelative superlative(the most, within a group el más caro (de todos))
      • is a subtype of its parentAbsolute superlative(extremely, with no group compared)
        • is a subtype of its parent-ísimocarísimobuenísimolindísima
          • the parent carries this as a propertyspelling adjusts: rico→riquísimo · largo→larguísimofeliz→felicísimojoven→jovencísimo
        • is a subtype of its parentlearnedóptimopésimomáximomínimo
        • is a subtype of its parentprefixalRPre-súper-requete-
    • is a subtype of its parentEVALUATIVE
      • is a subtype of its parentDiminutivechiquitocalentitosolito
      • is a subtype of its parentAugmentativegrandotebuenazo

3Determiner forms — exhaustive§

The complete grid.

m sgf sgm plf plneuter
definiteellaloslaslo
indefiniteununaunosunas—
proximalesteestaestosestasesto
medialeseesaesosesaseso
distalaquelaquellaaquellosaquellasaquello
poss. 1sgmimimismis—
poss. 2sgtututustus—
poss. 3sususussus—
poss. 1plnuestronuestranuestrosnuestras—
universaltodotodatodostodastodo
existentialalgúnalgunaalgunosalgunasalgo
negativeningúnninguna(ningunos)(ningunas)nada
free choicecualquiercualquiercualesquieracualesquiera—
otherotrootraotrosotras—

4Pronoun forms — exhaustive§

The full personal-pronoun grid, rioplatense.

PersonSubjectAccusativeDativeReflexiveAfter a preposition
1 sgyomemememí (conmigo)
2 sgvostetetevos ⚠ (con vos)
2 sg formalustedlo / laleseusted
3 sgél / ellalo / laleseél / ella (consigo)
1 plnosotros/asnosnosnosnosotros/as
2 plustedeslos / laslesseustedes
3 plellos/aslos / laslesseellos/as

Column meanings: accusative (direct object — what the action lands on) · dative (indirect object — to or for whom) · reflexive (the action returns to the doer).

Relative pronoun forms — relative pronoun (a word that hooks a describing clause onto a noun: the guy that came):

FormChanges shape?Use
quenouniversal
quien / quienesnumber onlypersons, esp. after prepositions
el que / la que / los que / las quegender + numbernominalizing; after prepositions
el cual / la cual / los cuales…gender + numberformal writing
cuyo / cuya / cuyos / cuyasagrees with the thing possessedel autor cuyos libros… frequency 1 of 3, rare
donde / cuando / comonoplace / time / manner

5The nominal inflection system, whole frequency 2 of 3, secondary§

Inflection = changing a word's ending to mark grammar (number, gender, tense), as opposed to derivation (building a genuinely new word: pobre → pobreza).

  • NOMINAL INFLECTION
    • is a subtype of its parentINHERENT ─ belongs to the word itself, from the dictionary
      • is a subtype of its parentnoun gender(el mapa ← not copied from anywhere)
    • is a subtype of its parentINFLECTIONAL ─ chosen by you and marked with an ending
      • is a subtype of its parentnoun number(casa → casas)
    • is a subtype of its parentAGREED ─ copied from somewhere elsesee06 §2
      • is a subtype of its parentdeterminer ⟵ nounLA casaLAS casas
      • is a subtype of its parentadjective ⟵ nouncasa BLANCAcasas BLANCAS
      • is a subtype of its parentparticiple ⟵ noun(la puerta CERRADA)
      • is a subtype of its parentpronoun ⟵ referent la vi

What Spanish nouns do NOT mark, unlike others on the thirteen-language list: case (a different noun ending for each sentence role — Russian, German, Turkish do this), definiteness on the noun itself (Hebrew, Arabic), possession on the noun (Turkish), classifier agreement (Mandarin, Japanese, Korean).

Terms defined in this volume§

Terms defined in this volume45

  • nominal
  • verbal
  • reference
  • proper
  • common
  • concrete
  • abstract
  • countability
  • count
  • mass
  • collective
  • unitizer
  • gender
  • common gender
  • epicene
  • ambiguous
  • phonological
  • pluralia/singularia tantum
  • formation
  • affix
  • deverbal / deadjectival / denominal
  • compound
  • evaluative
  • clipping
  • conversion
  • orthogonal
  • paradigm
  • invariable
  • apocope
  • degree
  • analytic
  • synthetic
  • neuter
  • nominalize
  • accusative
  • dative
  • reflexive
  • syncretism
  • relative pronoun
  • inflection
  • derivation
  • inherent
  • inflectional
  • agreed
  • case

Cross-references§

Next03-FORMS-VERBAL.md