Kind: OPERATION. Not what things are — what happens to them. Every operation stated as input → trigger → output.
Every technical term is defined inline at first use. Recap at the end.
1THE OPERATION TREE frequency 3 of 3, daily§
- OPERATION
- is a subtype of its parentMORPHOLOGICAL — changing a word's shape(morphology = the internal structure of words: stems, endings, prefixes — as opposed to how words combine])
- is a subtype of its parentINFLECTION(adding grammatical endings to the SAME word)
- is a subtype of its parentconjugation(verb + person/tense/mood)
- is a subtype of its parentdeclension(noun/adjective + gender/number)
- is a subtype of its parentapocope(chopping the end off (bueno→buen))
- is a subtype of its parentDERIVATION(building a genuinely NEW word)
- is a subtype of its parentsuffixation(producir→producción)
- is a subtype of its parentprefixationhacer→deshacerre-bueno
- is a subtype of its parentcompounding(para+aguas→paraguas)
- is a subtype of its parentconversion(correr(verb)→el correr(noun), no ending added)
- is a subtype of its parentEVALUATION(adding attitude, not meaning)diminutiveaugmentative
- is a subtype of its parentINFLECTION(adding grammatical endings to the SAME word)
- is a subtype of its parentSYNTACTIC — rearranging or linking words(syntax = how words combine into phrases and sentences)
- is a subtype of its parentAGREEMENT(copying features ◄)§2
- is a subtype of its parentSELECTION(demanding a feature ◄)§3
- is a subtype of its parentVALENCE CHANGE(adding/removing participants ◄)§4
- is a subtype of its parentCLITICIZATION(attaching small pronouns ◄)§5
- is a subtype of its parentMOVEMENT§6frontinginversion ◄
- is a subtype of its parentELLIPSIS(leaving out what's recoverable ◄)§7
- is a subtype of its parentPHONOLOGICAL — sound-driven changes(phonology = the sound system; changes made because of how a word sounds, not what it means])
- is a subtype of its parentdiphthongization(stressed e→ie, o→ue)
- is a subtype of its parentvowel raising(-ir stems: dormir→durmió)
- is a subtype of its parentorthographic adj.(spelling changed to keep the sound ◄)§8
- is a subtype of its parentdissimilation(changing a sound to avoid repetition le+lo → SE lo)
- is a subtype of its parentphonological article la agua → EL agua
- is a subtype of its parentstress management(where the written accent goes ◄)§9
- is a subtype of its parentDIACHRONIC — changes across centuries(diachronic = through historical time, as opposed to how the language works at one moment])
- is a subtype of its parentgrammaticalization(a content word wearing down into grammar ◄)§10
- is a subtype of its parenterosion(phonetic wearing-down)
- is a subtype of its parentanalogy(reshaping an odd form to match a pattern)
- is a subtype of its parentcycles(the same change repeating over centuries)
- is a subtype of its parentMORPHOLOGICAL — changing a word's shape(morphology = the internal structure of words: stems, endings, prefixes — as opposed to how words combine])
2AGREEMENT — the master operation frequency 3 of 3, daily§
Agreement (one word copying a feature value from another, so the two match).
inputa feature value on a source
triggera syntactic relationship
outputthat value copied onto targets.
- AGREEMENTconcordancia
- is a subtype of its parentNOMINAL — gender + number, source = the NOUN
- is a subtype of its parentdeterminer ⟵ noun(LA casa)
- is a subtype of its parentadjective ⟵ noun(casa BLANCA)
- is a subtype of its parentparticiple(adj) ⟵ noun(puerta CERRADA)
- is a subtype of its parentpronoun ⟵ referent(LA vi)
- is a subtype of its parentVERBAL — person + number, source = the SUBJECT
- is a subtype of its parentfinite verb ⟵ subjectyo hablOvos hablÁS
- is a subtype of its parentinverted verbs ⟵ the thing(me gustAN los vinos)
- is a subtype of its parentpassive participle ⟵ subject(las casas fueron construidAS)
- is a subtype of its parentNOMINAL — gender + number, source = the NOUN
2.1The three cases that break naive expectations§
2.2Where agreement stops§
Spanish agreement is short-range compared to its neighbours:
- ✗ no agreement into a compound-tense participle (French has it)
- ✗ no definiteness spreading through the phrase (Hebrew and Arabic have it)
- ✗ no object agreement on the verb
- ✗ no agreement across a clause boundary
3SELECTION — demanding, not copying frequency 2 of 3, secondary§
inputa governing word
triggerits own lexical properties (lexical = stored per-word in the dictionary rather than following a rule)
outputa required form elsewhere.
| Selector | Demands | Example |
|---|---|---|
| para que | subjunctive | para que *rinda*** |
| antes de que | subjunctive, always | antes de que *te vayas*** |
| negated opinion verb | subjunctive | no creo que *venga*** |
| depender | preposition de | depende *de* vos |
| soñar | preposition con | sueño *con* eso |
| main-clause past | past subjunctive | quería que *vinieras*** |
| hay que | infinitive | hay que *esperar*** |
| según | indicative + subject pronoun | según *vos*** |
4VALENCE CHANGE frequency 3 of 3, daily§
inputa verb with N participants
triggerse, a periphrasis, or a passive
outputa verb with a different participant count.
- VALENCE OPERATIONS
- is a subtype of its parentDECREASE
- is a subtype of its parentanticausative se(rompí el vaso → SE rompió el vaso [2→1] anticausative = removing the causer so the event looks like it just happened by itself])
- is a subtype of its parentpassive se(venden casas → SE venden casas [2→1])
- is a subtype of its parentimpersonal se((uno) vive bien → SE vive bien [→0])
- is a subtype of its parent3rd-plural passive(me robaron el celular [doer hidden, unnamed])
- is a subtype of its parentINCREASE
- is a subtype of its parentdative of interest(se rompió → SE ME rompió [1→2] an affected person added to an event nobody caused)
- is a subtype of its parentpossessive dative(duele la cabeza → ME duele la cabeza [1→2])
- is a subtype of its parentcausative(comió → LO HICE comer [1→2] causative = adding someone who made it happen)
- is a subtype of its parentREARRANGE
- is a subtype of its parentser-passive(Martín lo hizo → fue hecho POR Martín)
- is a subtype of its parentgustar-inversion((built into the verb, not derived))
- is a subtype of its parentDECREASE
5CLITICIZATION frequency 3 of 3, daily§
inputa pronoun + a verb
triggerthe verb's form
outputan attached, ordered cluster.
- CLITICIZATION
- is a subtype of its parentPLACEMENT — decided by the verb form, not by you
- is a subtype of its parentPROCLISIS — before a finite verb(proclisis = leaning forward onto what follows)TE llamoNO lo vi
- is a subtype of its parentENCLISIS — attached to the end of(enclisis = leaning backward onto what precedes)
- is a subtype of its parentinfinitive(llamarTE)
- is a subtype of its parentgerundio(llamándoTE)
- is a subtype of its parentaffirmative imperative(with periphrases, EITHER: te estoy llamando = estoy llamándote)llamaMEdecíME
- is a subtype of its parentORDERING — fixed, never varies for emphasis(se › 2nd person › 1st person › 3rd person SE ME rompió · TE LO doy *me se rompió ← heavily stigmatized)
- is a subtype of its parentDISSIMILATION — a sound changed to avoid an unpleasant repetition(le/les + lo/la/los/las → SE + lo/la/los/las se lo di ✗ *le lo di)
- is a subtype of its parentDOUBLING — the clitic AND the full phrase both present
- is a subtype of its parentdative — near-obligatory(LE di el libro A MARÍA)
- is a subtype of its parentaccusative — RP specialty(LO vi A JUAN)
- is a subtype of its parentPLACEMENT — decided by the verb form, not by you
6MOVEMENT frequency 2 of 3, secondary§
inputa phrase in its normal position
triggera discourse need
outputa reordered clause.
| Operation | What moves | Requires | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Topic fronting | object → front | a resumptive clitic | El pescado *lo* comí ayer |
| Focus fronting | any phrase → front | stress | *A MÍ me parece que sí* |
| Subject inversion | subject → after verb | — | Llegó *un tipo*** |
| Wh-fronting | question word → front | — | ¿*Dónde* vivís? |
| Pied-piping | preposition travels with its object | mandatory | ¿*De dónde* sos? |
Pied-piping (when a moved word drags its preposition along with it, instead of leaving it behind — named after the Pied Piper, who led the rats out of Hamelin).
7ELLIPSIS frequency 2 of 3, secondary§
Ellipsis (leaving something out because the listener can recover it from context).
| Type | Example | Licensed by |
|---|---|---|
| Subject drop (pro-drop) | Comí. | the verb ending already says who |
| Verb-phrase ellipsis | — ¿Venís? — Sí. | context |
| Noun ellipsis | el rojo (the red one) | determiner + adjective survive |
| Comparative ellipsis | Más caro que el otro. | parallel structure |
8Orthographic adjustment — the complete set frequency 2 of 3, secondary§
inputa stem + an ending
triggeran illegal letter sequence
outputa respelling that preserves the sound.
| Illegal | Fix | Verb example | Noun/adjective example |
|---|---|---|---|
| c + e/i (would sound "s") | c → qu | buscar → busqué | rico → riquísimo |
| g + e/i (would sound "j") | g → gu | llegar → llegué | largo → larguísimo |
| z + e/i | z → c | empezar → empecé | lápiz → lápices |
| gu + e/i (u goes silent) | gu → gü | averiguar → averigüé | — |
| g + a/o (would sound hard) | g → j | escoger → escojo | — |
| c + a/o (would sound "k") | c → z | vencer → venzo | — |
| unstressed i between vowels | i → y | leer → leyó | — |
| i after ñ/ll | absorbed | bullir → bulló | — |
9Stress management frequency 2 of 3, secondary§
known defectdiagram defect — Stress management and the written accent Actually: Row 2 has an empty first cell: 'or appear / examen to examenes' is a continuation of the 'Pluralizing adds a syllable' row above it, so the row is not self-contained and reads as a rule with no trigger. The one change actually has two possible outcomes.. (not re-checked against the source file)inputa word
triggerthe default stress rules
outputa written accent, or none.
The default:
- ends in a vowel, -n, or -s → stress the second-to-last syllable
- ends in any other consonant → stress the last syllable
- Any departure from the default gets a written accent.
| Change | Effect | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Pluralizing adds a syllable | accent may drop | canción → canciones |
| or appear | examen → exámenes | |
| Enclisis lengthens the word | accent appears | decí + me + lo → decímelo |
| Voseo stresses the ending | accent required | hablás · tenés · comé |
| Preterite stresses the ending | accent required | hablé · habló |
| Strong preterites stress the stem | no accent | estuve · dijo · pude |
10Diachronic operations frequency 2 of 3, secondary§
Grammaticalization (a word with real meaning being used so often that it wears down, loses its meaning, and ends up as pure grammatical machinery).
- GRAMMATICALIZATION — content word ⇒ grammar
- is a subtype of its parentFUTURE(hablar + he ⇒ hablaré [complete, medieval] ir a + inf ⇒ future [in progress, now])
- is a subtype of its parentARTICLES(ille (that) ⇒ el unus (one) ⇒ un)
- is a subtype of its parentCOPULA(stare (to stand) ⇒ estar)
- is a subtype of its parentPERFECT(habere (to hold) ⇒ haber)
- is a subtype of its parentMOOD TRIGGER(law šāʾ Allāh (Arabic, "God willing") ⇒ ojalá)
Analogy (reshaping an irregular form to match a regular pattern, because speakers unconsciously prefer regularity) — the counter-force: andar → andé (analogical) competes with anduve (inherited). Only high frequency protects a form from being levelled; that's why irregular verbs are always the commonest ones.
Terms defined in this volume§
Terms defined in this volume31
- morphology
- syntax
- phonology
- diachronic
- inflection
- derivation
- conjugation
- declension
- apocope
- conversion
- evaluation
- agreement
- selection
- lexical
- valence change
- anticausative
- causative
- cliticization
- proclisis
- enclisis
- dissimilation
- doubling
- movement
- pied-piping
- stranding
- resumptive
- ellipsis
- pro-drop
- orthographic adjustment
- grammaticalization
- analogy
Cross-references§
- Features being copied05 §6
- Constructions produced by valence change07 §2
- Clitic detailsBook 1, `spanish/03 §3
- Grammaticalization across 13 languages00-FOUNDATIONS §13