Kind: FUNCTION. Not what a word is — what it's doing in this particular sentence. Exhaustive: Spanish has exactly eight clause-level functions.
Every technical term is defined inline at first use. Recap at the end.
1THE FUNCTION TREE frequency 3 of 3, daily§
Two words first:
Argument (a participant the verb genuinely requires — comer needs someone eating and something eaten; drop one and the sentence breaks). Adjunct (extra information the verb doesn't require — where, when, how; drop it and the sentence still stands).
- FUNCTION
- is a subtype of its parentCLAUSE-LEVEL(the eight (complete inventory))
- is a subtype of its parentARGUMENTS — required by the verb
- is a subtype of its parent① SUJETO(subject)
- is a subtype of its parent② COMPLEMENTO DIRECTOCD(direct object)
- is a subtype of its parent③ COMPLEMENTO INDIRECTO (CI) indirect object
- is a subtype of its parent④ COMPLEMENTO DE RÉGIMEN(prepositional object)
- is a subtype of its parent⑤ ATRIBUTO(attribute)
- is a subtype of its parent⑥ COMPLEMENTO PREDICATIVO(predicative complement)
- is a subtype of its parentADJUNCTS — optional
- is a subtype of its parent⑦ COMPLEMENTO CIRCUNSTANCIALCC(when/where/how/why)
- is a subtype of its parent⑧ COMPLEMENTO AGENTE(the doer, in a passive)
- is a subtype of its parentARGUMENTS — required by the verb
- is a subtype of its parentPHRASE-LEVEL(inside a single phrase)
- is a subtype of its parentHEAD(the central word the phrase is about)
- is a subtype of its parentSPECIFIER(the determiner slot, setting scope)
- is a subtype of its parentMODIFIER(adds description (adjective, relative clause))
- is a subtype of its parentCOMPLEMENT(required by the head (la casa DE JUAN))
- is a subtype of its parentDISCOURSE-LEVEL ─ across the whole sentence and conversation
- is a subtype of its parentTOPIC(what this is about — goes FIRST)
- is a subtype of its parentFOCUS(the news — goes LAST)
- is a subtype of its parentGIVEN(already known to both of you)
- is a subtype of its parentDISCOURSE MARKING(managing the conversation ( ))§5
- is a subtype of its parentCLAUSE-LEVEL(the eight (complete inventory))
2The eight, with tests frequency 3 of 3, daily§
1SUJETO — subject§
El gato come. → Los gatos com*en*. ✓
- May be omitted — Comí. This is pro-drop (a language dropping subject pronouns because the verb ending already says who)
- May follow the verb when it's new information — Llegó *un tipo***
- Is not necessarily the doer: Me gusta *el vino** — el vino* is the subject
2COMPLEMENTO DIRECTO (CD) — direct object§
Vi *la película. → La* vi. ✓
- Takes DOM (differential object marking — flagging certain direct objects with a, when they're specific and alive): Vi *a* María
- ⚠ That a does not make it indirect — the clitic test settles it: *La vi, not le (ungrammatical) vi*
3COMPLEMENTO INDIRECTO (CI) — indirect object§
Le di el libro a María. — le = CI, el libro = CD ✓
- Nearly always doubled (the clitic and the full phrase both appear: Le di el libro a María*)*
- Covers recipients, beneficiaries, and affected parties: Se *me* rompió el vaso — that me is a CI
4COMPLEMENTO DE RÉGIMEN — prepositional object§
Depende *de vos. · Pienso en vos. · Me acordé de eso*.
5ATRIBUTO — attribute§
Attribute (the description linked to a subject by ser, estar or parecer — the verb contributes almost nothing; the attribute carries the meaning).
Es *médico. → Lo es. ✓ Está cansada. → Lo* está. ✓
6COMPLEMENTO PREDICATIVO — predicative complement§
Llegó *cansado. — he arrived, and was tired while arriving Lo encontré dormido. — describes the object Te veo contento*.
7COMPLEMENTO CIRCUNSTANCIAL (CC) — adjunct§
Comí *en Palermo ayer con un amigo*. — three CCs, all droppable ✓
Subtypes: time · place · manner · cause · purpose · instrument · company · quantity
8COMPLEMENTO AGENTE — passive agent§
Agent (the entity actually performing the action, regardless of which sentence slot it lands in).
Fue escrito *por Borges*.
3Form ↔ function mapping frequency 3 of 3, daily§
The point of this table: form does not determine function.
3.1One form, many functions§
| Form | can be… |
|---|---|
| noun phrase | subject · CD · CI · attribute · adjunct (ayer) |
| infinitive | subject (fumar es malo) · CD (quiero ir) · adjunct (para ir) |
| subordinate clause | subject (me molesta *que llegue tarde) · CD (creo *que sí) · adjunct (cuando llegue) |
| participle | attribute (está cerrada) · predicative (llegó cansado) · modifier (la puerta cerrada) |
| prepositional phrase | CD with DOM · CI · régimen · adjunct · agent |
| adjective | modifier · attribute · predicative · (nominalized) subject |
3.2One function, many forms§
| Function | can be filled by… |
|---|---|
| subject | noun phrase · pronoun · infinitive · clause · nothing (pro-drop) |
| CD | noun phrase · clitic · infinitive · clause · a+phrase |
| attribute | adjective · noun · participle · prepositional phrase (es de madera) |
| adjunct | adverb · prepositional phrase · noun phrase · gerundio · clause |
4Discourse functions frequency 3 of 3, daily§
Above the clause. Spanish uses word order for this, because agreement and clitics already handle who-did-what.
- DISCOURSE FUNCTION
- is a subtype of its parentTOPIC(what the sentence is about)
- is a subtype of its parentunmarked(the subject, sitting in place)
- is a subtype of its parentmarked(moved to the front, requiring a RESUMPTIVE clitic to hold its slot resumptive = a small pronoun left behind to fill the gap the moved phrase vacated] "El pescado LO comí ayer" "A mí ME parece que sí")
- is a subtype of its parentFOCUS(the new information)
- is a subtype of its parentunmarked(final position (the default focus slot))
- is a subtype of its parentmarked(a CLEFT: "Lo que quiero ES irme" cleft = splitting one sentence into two halves to spotlight one piece])
- is a subtype of its parentcontrastive(an explicit pronoun: "YO creo que sí")
- is a subtype of its parentGIVEN(already established)
- is a subtype of its parentclitic(lo, la, le)
- is a subtype of its parentomission(pro-drop subject)
- is a subtype of its parentdefinite article "el vino"
- is a subtype of its parentTOPIC(what the sentence is about)
5The discourse-marker problem, resolved frequency 3 of 3, daily§
Vol 01 §9 flagged that igual, o sea, viste, tipo, nada, dale, che fit no word class comfortably. They aren't a class — they're a function. Sorting them by what they do works cleanly where sorting by what they are failed:
- DISCOURSE MARKING
- is a subtype of its parentTURN MANAGEMENT — controlling who's speaking
- is a subtype of its parentopennadabuenoa vermirá
- is a subtype of its parentholdeeehdigamoso seatipoviste
- is a subtype of its parentclosenada másy buenolistodale
- is a subtype of its parentSTANCE — signalling your attitude to what's said
- is a subtype of its parentagreeclaroobviotal cualexactode una
- is a subtype of its parentpartial agree frequency 3 of 3, dailyigualahoraojo
- is a subtype of its parenthedgepor ahícapazmediocomo que
- is a subtype of its parentemphasizepostaen seriola verdad
- is a subtype of its parentSTRUCTURE — signposting the argument
- is a subtype of its parentaddaparteencimaademás
- is a subtype of its parentreformulateo seaes decirdigamos
- is a subtype of its parentconcludetotalasí queal final
- is a subtype of its parentcontrastigualperoahoramás allá de
- is a subtype of its parentAPPEAL TO LISTENER — checking they're with you
- is a subtype of its parentcheck¿viste?¿no?¿entendés?¿sí?
- is a subtype of its parentvocative(vocative = a word used to address someone directly)cheboludo (careful)loco
- is a subtype of its parentsoften¿te parece?si querés
- is a subtype of its parentTURN MANAGEMENT — controlling who's speaking
6Argument structure — how many functions a verb needs§
The functions a verb requires are its valence (the number of participants a verb demands — llover needs zero, llegar one, dar three).
| Valence | Pattern | Example |
|---|---|---|
| 0 | no subject possible | Llueve. · Hay gente. · Hace frío. |
| 1 | subject only | Llegué. |
| 2 transitive | subject + CD | Comí una empanada. |
| 2 prepositional | subject + régimen | Depende de vos. |
| 2 copular | subject + attribute | Es consultor. |
| 3 | subject + CD + CI | Le di el libro a María. |
| inverted | subject = the thing; CI = the person | Me gusta el vino. |
Terms defined in this volume§
Terms defined in this volume17
- argument
- adjunct
- constituent
- pro-drop
- DOM
- doubling
- attribute
- predicative complement
- agent
- resumptive
- cleft
- topic
- focus
- given
- vocative
- valence
- inverted verb
Cross-references§
- Which forms fill which functions§3
- Valence and how se changes it05 §507 §2
- Word order as discourse functionBook 1, `spanish/11 §2
- Verb government (the régimen function)Book 1, `spanish/09 §4